Chapter Four: The Graceful Peaceful Era
Let us return to the matter of the Emperor, whose reign title is Zhenguan, the same as that of our Tang Taizong. On the night of the 10th day of the intercalary third month in the 8th year of Zhenguan (866), a sudden fire broke out at the Ying Tian Gate in front of the Tai Chi Hall, engulfing the adjacent Qifeng Tower and Xiangluan Tower in flames. This may have merely been a natural disaster, with no human factors involved; however, various factions within the court seized upon this incident to launch mutual accusations, ultimately leading to a major purge.
Since both former emperors have passed away, Emperor Ninmyo feels as though the great mountain pressing upon his shoulders has finally collapsed. He is determined to establish his own son as the heir to the throne, rather than favoring Prince Kōzen. However, having encountered, or perhaps orchestrated, this conspiracy case with great difficulty, if the Crown Prince resigns, the case will inevitably come to an end. Would it not be a pity if one does not delve deeper into the matter beforehand?
The nobility and samurai of Japan (farmers only had given names and nicknames, while merchants added a business name; it was not until the Meiji Restoration that they had surnames and titles, which will not be discussed here) generally had two names (excluding name changes or being granted a surname): a given name (common name) and a formal name. Some individuals held official positions, while others became monks and received a dharma name or temple name. Some, who admired Confucianism, had a courtesy name—these titles were often presented alongside their names as a sign of respect, forming a long string. The general rule is that if one holds an official position, the title replaces the common name; those with a dharma name or temple name would use the dharma name at home, prefixed with "Nidō" (入道), and would use the temple name during their time in the temple or after death.
As previously mentioned, the traditional concept of "family" in Japan does not refer to a family in the strictest sense; it centers around blood relations while also encompassing many non-blood relatives. In order to strengthen cohesion, samurai groups gradually evolved into this type of family and a collective of families. The leader of a samurai group also serves as the head of the family, with his own blood-related subordinates referred to as "ichizoku" (一族) or "kazuko" (家子), while non-relatives are called "rōtō" (郎党) or "rōzō" (郎从). When discussing samurai groups, it is often said that someone leads their "ichizoku rōtō," referring to both blood-related and non-blood-related subordinates.
Following this event, the prestigious Ōtomo and Nakatomi clans were completely expelled from the court, while the influence of Fujiwara no Yoshisuke and the Minamoto brothers also suffered a significant blow. The power of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa and his son Motonari became even more solidified. More importantly, the position of regent, which had previously been granted only to the empress or the crown prince, now fell into the hands of the subjects. The term "regent" signifies "the overall administration of affairs," and the head of the Fujiwara clan would serve as regent during the emperor's youth, transitioning to the title of kampaku (meaning "the one who oversees all matters") once the emperor reached adulthood, gradually becoming an unwritten tradition.
It is said that Prince Yasunori left behind a malicious curse, shortly after which the Empress, the Emperor's biological mother, and various ladies of the court successively passed away. Ise Jingu also suffered from a divine fire, and epidemics broke out in many places across the country. Emperor Kanmu could no longer remain in Nagaokakyo, so in 794, he accepted the suggestion of Wake no Kiyomaro to relocate the capital once again, which became known as Heian-kyo
After Prince Anden ascended to the throne following Emperor Kanmu, he was historically known as Emperor Heijo. Emperor Heijo was a man of great debauchery; even while in the Crown Prince's residence, he fell in love with Fujihara Tanezane's daughter, Yako, as well as Yako's daughter, bringing them both into the Crown Prince's residence. In the context of ancient Japanese marriage customs, this was not considered a significant issue. Unfortunately for Yako, her husband was still alive at that time, which infuriated Emperor Kanmu, leading him to order Yako's expulsion from the palace.
It should be noted that from this point onward, although cultural exchanges between China and Japan did not cease, the Japanese no longer completely and utterly acted as students, as they did during the Nara period, always taking China as their teacher. The unique characteristics of Japanese indigenous culture began to resurface, and a new culture that blended local customs with Tang influences gradually took shape—this is also a significant reason why the aristocratic clothing of the Heian period, while resembling Tang attire, embodied the spirit of the local culture, unlike the completely Tang-style garments of the Nara period.
Prince Yoshiyoshi later ascended the throne as Emperor Ninmyō, with the era name Jōwa. Emperor Ninmyō was essentially a complete puppet, as both his father, Emperor Saga, and his uncle, Emperor Junna, were still alive, manipulating events from behind the scenes, which greatly displeased Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. Yoshifusa wished for Prince Daikō, born of Shunko, to be appointed as the Crown Prince, but the two former emperors insisted that Prince Kōsei, the son of Emperor Junna, inherit the throne. The year Yoshifusa was appointed as Chūnagon was precisely the eighth year of Jōwa (841). By then, the two supporters of Prince Kōsei, Emperor Junna, had passed away the previous May, and Emperor Saga was bedridden and nearing death. Yoshifusa felt the time was ripe to prepare for the deposition of the Crown Prince. In July of the following year, Emperor Saga died, and the "Jōwa Incident" erupted in the same month
Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu, hailing from the Northern House, was the great-grandson of Fujiwara no Tamemoto. After assuming high office, he sought to strengthen ties with the imperial family by marrying his daughter, Shunko, to Prince Masayoshi, the son of Emperor Saga, and also took his son-in-law's sister, Kiyohime, as the wife of his second son, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. This Fujiwara no Yoshifusa began his career as a commoner and gradually ascended to the esteemed position of Chūnagon.
The process of the "Chenghe Incident" is as follows: It is said that on the 10th day of the seventh month, Prince Hengzhen's trusted aide, the sword-bearing servant Ban Jianchen, secretly visited Prince Abō, requesting to jointly support the Eastern Palace in fleeing to the Eastern Kingdom to respond to the impending chaos. Prince Abō was the son of Emperor Pingcheng. In the past, when Emperors Pingcheng and Saga were in opposition, Emperor Pingcheng, incited by Fujiwara Nakane and Yakuzi, had also considered going to the Eastern Kingdom to rally troops to defeat the opposing forces. It is highly likely that Prince Abō was involved in this scheme. Thirty-two years passed in the blink of an eye, and the now fifty-year-old Prince Abō had long lost the ambitions of his youth. Therefore, he reported Ban Jianchen's conspiracy to Empress Tachibana Kachiko, the wife of Emperor Saga, who immediately informed Emperor Nimmō and Fujiwara Yoshifusa.
During the Hōki era, a notable figure worthy of mention is the first Shōgun, Sakanoue no Tamuramaro. It is said that this individual’s ancestors were descendants of Emperor Ling of Han, known as Achi no Shitashiyu. Due to the usurpation of the Han by Cao Wei, they fled with a population of seven surnames from seventeen counties to the Japanese archipelago via the Korean Peninsula (who knows!). The descendants of Achi no Shitashiyu were granted the surname "Tōkan no Choku" and branched into many clans, including Sakanoue, Michi, and Hinokuma, among others. Sakanoue no Tamuramaro of the Sakanoue clan was a renowned general of his time
Prince Heimei is none other than Emperor Saga, a man of considerable ambition who aspires to achieve great things. Unfortunately, although Emperor Heizei of Nara has nominally abdicated, he refuses to truly withdraw from the political arena, issuing commands from Nara and constantly opposing his brother. In order to compete with the retired emperor, Emperor Saga first sought to blind him to his actions, thus expelling Yako from the palace and establishing a "Secret Office" to manage and assist in handling confidential documents. Yako fled to Nara to complain to the retired emperor, who was greatly angered and subsequently announced in the fifth year of Daidō (810 AD) in September that the capital would be moved back from Heian-kyo to his own location in Heijō-kyo.
Perhaps due to a life of indulgence, his health deteriorated, leaving him weak and disinterested in managing state affairs—after all, Japan has this tradition where eight out of ten emperors abdicate rather than passing on the throne after death—thus, after sitting on the throne for only four years, Emperor Heijo abdicated in favor of his younger brother Prince Kameyama and retreated to Heijo Palace to live in seclusion
During the era of Emperor Kammu, the privatization of land became increasingly severe, leading to the emergence of various feudal estates of all sizes. This significantly impacted national tax revenue and the centralized rule of the emperor, forcing the court to implement a series of reform measures to prevent the complete collapse of the equal-field system
After the 9th century, through relentless struggle, the tenant farmers gradually stabilized their rights to land ownership, allowing them to inscribe their names on leases, thus giving rise to "named fields." The owners of these named fields were referred to as "landlords." Named fields could be inherited and transferred, and could also be subleased to impoverished farmers for cultivation. Consequently, those who owned a large number of named fields were called "daimyo," while those with a smaller number were referred to as "shōnō." The impoverished farmers who rented and cultivated the common fields were known as "commoners," "laborers," or "names."
With the existence of private land, the issue of land consolidation inevitably arises. Consequently, nobles and religious institutions, leveraging their power and financial resources, extensively encroach upon and purchase land, accommodating fleeing farmers to cultivate it. They appoint managers, known as estate stewards, to oversee their private lands, and the fields managed by these stewards are referred to as estates
In order to strengthen centralization and suppress the power of court officials, monarchs often adopt the method of establishing entirely new secretarial institutions. These new secretarial positions may not necessarily be of high rank or possess extensive qualifications; however, due to their proximity to the center of power, they inevitably grow in influence and may even replace the positions of the old court officials. In our country, the Han Dynasty first established the Shangshu Tai, which later evolved into the Shangshu Sheng, becoming a formal administrative institution of the court after the Sui and Tang Dynasties. In the early Ming Dynasty, the position of Grand Secretary was created, and by the mid-Ming Dynasty, the Grand Secretary had transformed into a true prime minister.
Subsequently, Fujiwara no Motonaga, against the majority opinion, supported the ascension of Prince Tokō, who was characterized by "graceful demeanor, humility, and gentleness," yet was financially strained and heavily in debt. Prince Tokō was the son of Emperor Ninmyō and is historically known as Emperor Kōkō. Emperor Kōkō reigned for only four years before passing away; he did not establish a crown prince and demoted all 29 of his children, bestowing them upon the Genji clan. Ultimately, under the planning of Fujiwara no Motonaga, his seventh son, Minamoto no Sadamitsu, was appointed as crown prince and subsequently elevated to the throne, becoming Emperor Uda.
During this period, the equal-field system continued to collapse, and the original legal system gradually fell behind the pace of historical development, necessitating multiple revisions. Emperor Saga established two new titles, the "Kōnin" and the "Kenpei Shusei," referred to as "Rōgai-kan." The former served as the emperor's secretarial institution, while the latter was responsible for military, police, and judicial matters in Kyoto. In addition, he issued the "Kōnin Format" to amend the legal codes—"Format" refers to the modified legal texts, while "Style" pertains to various detailed regulations drafted for the application of these legal texts. This format, as a patch, was subsequently revised multiple times.
In the sixth year of Yuanqing (882 AD), Emperor Yōsei was fifteen years old and held the ceremony of coming of age. However, it was said that this child was quite unpromising, indulging in horse riding and hawking, and was preoccupied with amusement. He even opened the box containing the sacred treasures and took out the Kusanagi sword to play with. Fujiwara no Mototsune repeatedly advised him, but this nephew refused to behave even slightly like a proper person. Eventually, feeling disheartened, he compelled him to write the words, "I have recently suffered from several illnesses, am often fatigued, the affairs of the state are heavy, and the sacred treasures cannot be protected. I wish to abdicate this position swiftly," which he announced in February 884.
It is not uncommon in Japanese history for the maternal relatives of the emperor to hold power, but the first to seize the position of Chancellor from the imperial family was Kiyomori Taira, followed by Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. Yoshifusa was the third Chancellor who was not of imperial descent; prior to him, there were also the priest-king Dokyo and Kiyomori Taira. However, the power of those two was not stable, and ultimately, they either met their demise or were exiled. Fujiwara no Yoshifusa still has a long way to go if he wishes to pass on wealth and power through generations...
In fact, regarding the conspiracy involving Ban Jianchen and others, there is no sufficient and concrete evidence apart from the informant's report from Prince Da Bao. Furthermore, even if the evidence were irrefutable, it would not necessarily implicate Prince Hengzhen. Moreover, even if all of this had been approved by Prince Hengzhen, the journey to the Eastern Kingdom could be seen as a means of evading disaster rather than an act of rebellion. However, all of this has become irrelevant; what is important is that Fujiwara no Yoshifusa took advantage of this opportunity to successfully remove numerous obstacles and elevate his nephew, Prince Daokang, to the Eastern Palace, thereby paving his own way to the center of power. In August of that year, he was promoted to the position of Jōsanmi Dainagon for his achievements, and in 848, he was further elevated to the position of Udaijin.
Although the Emperor is still young, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa is already seeking wives and concubines for him, and the candidates are naturally from the Fujiwara Northern House. First, he sent his brother Fujiwara no Yoshisuke's daughter, Tamiko, into the palace, and then he set his sights on his elder brother Fujiwara no Nagayoshi's daughter, Takako. However, it is said that Takako already has a lover and is adamant about not entering the palace
The God of Learning, Sugawara no Michizane
On July 15, Emperor Saga passed away. Two days later, Ban Jianchen and another trusted confidant of the Crown Prince, Tanma Quanshou (with "Quan" indicating an additional appointee), Jushi, were simultaneously arrested by the Imperial Guard for conspiracy to rebel. After a trial, they were respectively exiled to Oki and Izu. With the arrest of his confidants, the lord could not claim to be completely unaware. Prince Hengzhen hurriedly submitted a letter of apology and requested to resign from the Crown Prince's position. Emperor Ninmyo kindly reassured him, saying that he was not involved in this matter and need not worry.
Let us take another look at the familiar figure of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. He was born a farmer, and his childhood name is unknown (legend has it that it was Hiyoshi-maru). After rising to the status of a samurai, he adopted a more refined common name, Toyokichirō, assumed the surname Kinoshita, and took the name Hideyoshi, thus becoming "Kinoshita Toyokichirō Hideyoshi." When Oda Nobunaga granted him half of Ōmi Province, he was bestowed the surname Hashiba to signify his authority (Kinoshita, as everyone knows, was not of noble birth; Hashiba, on the other hand, was newly created and unverifiable, yet it sounded somewhat archaic). He was then referred to as "Hashiba Toyokichirō Hideyoshi." At this point, he had already become a prominent lord, and lacking an official title seemed inappropriate, so he was granted the position of Chikuzen no Kami, becoming "Hashiba Chikuzen no Kami Hideyoshi." Once Hideyoshi unified the realm and attained high office, it was unfortunate that he was not of the Minamoto or Taira clans, which prevented him from being appointed as Shōgun (he once pretended to be of the Taira clan and sought to claim descent from the Minamoto, but to no avail; he even spread rumors that he was the illegitimate son of the Emperor, which ultimately backfired and forced him to desist). Coincidentally, the Fujiwara Northern House was in dire straits, so he approached them, calling them his godfather, and became known as "Fujiwara Kanpaku Hideyoshi," yet he still faced widespread derision. The Emperor, in his helplessness, granted him the surname "Toyotomi"—this is how he came to be known as "Toyotomi Kanpaku Hideyoshi." He was abbreviated to "Toyokanpaku," and after his abdication, he was referred to as "Toyotaka."
These reform measures will undoubtedly face opposition from the conservatives. In order to free himself from those obstructive figures, particularly the increasingly powerful temple and shrine forces since the time of Genbo and Daikyo, he, at the initiative of Fujiwara no Tanetsugu (the grandson of Fujiwara no Uda), left Heijo-kyo in 784 and moved the capital to Nagaoka-kyo. However, in September of the fourth year of Enryaku (785), the new capital of Nagaoka was still not completed, and the overall commander Fujiwara no Tanetsugu was assassinated.
In response to such a ridiculous command, Emperor Saga naturally ignored it. Moreover, he pointedly changed the era name to "Kōnin," signaling to the world that a dynastic change had occurred: the current emperor is me, not you, Kozi. The two courts each sought to win over the nobility and temple factions, gathering troops and preparing for war
Emperor Wende reigned for eight years before passing away unexpectedly. The Crown Prince, Prince Yoshitomo, the grandson of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, ascended to the throne, becoming Emperor Seiwa. This Emperor Seiwa was only nine months old when he was designated as Crown Prince and merely nine years old at the time of his ascension, lacking any understanding of governance, with all state affairs entirely decided by his maternal grandfather, Yoshifusa.
In the past, when military campaigns were launched against the Emishi, the commanders were often titled "General for the Eastern Expedition" or "Envoy for the Eastern Expedition." In the 11th year of the Enryaku era (792 AD), Emperor Kammu appointed Otomo no Yamaro as the Envoy for the Eastern Expedition, who led an army eastward and achieved a great victory after four years. During this time, the title of Envoy for the Eastern Expedition was changed to General for the Subjugation of the Emishi. By the 16th year of the Enryaku era (797 AD), Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, a subordinate of Otomo no Yamaro, was also granted the title of General for the Subjugation of the Emishi—this marks the origin of this title.
Returning to Emperor Saga, after reigning for fourteen years, he abdicated in favor of Prince Ōtomo, who became Emperor Junwa. Emperor Junwa reigned for ten years before abdicating in favor of Prince Masayoshi, the son of Emperor Saga, who became Emperor Ninnmyō. During this period, Emperor Saga was continuously manipulating the court from behind the scenes, with both his brother and son merely serving as his puppets, until his death in July of the ninth year of the Jōwa era (842)
After Prince Dunren ascended the throne, he was historically known as Emperor Daigo. Being still quite young, he was inevitably subject to manipulation by powerful ministers. Sugawara no Michizane, who had already been promoted to the position of Right Minister, was falsely accused by Fujiwara no Tokihira, who claimed that Michizane intended to support his son-in-law, Prince Seisei, the third son of Emperor Uda, to become emperor. Consequently, Emperor Daigo demoted Sugawara no Michizane to the position of Governor of Dazaifu. Although this position was not insignificant, it ultimately distanced him from Kyoto and the center of power. This caused Sugawara no Michizane, who was filled with ambition and wished to achieve great accomplishments, to feel great indignation. Two years later, in 903, he died in exile in Kyushu.
Taira no Masakado and Fujiwara no Sumitomo can be regarded as representatives of the newly emerging samurai forces. When discussing them, it is essential to first address what a samurai is and what a samurai group entails. The samurai are products of the collapse of the equal-field system and the formation of the manor system. Due to the establishment of various large and small manors, the court could no longer enforce the equal-field allocation. From 828 to 881, there was a complete span of 51 years during which no land was allocated under the equal-field system.
Gaozi's lover was the renowned first dandy and handsome man, Nagahara no Yoshihira. Nagahara no Yoshihira was the grandson of Emperor Heizei and was granted the surname "Nagahara," thus becoming a subject. He was skilled in poetry, with an elegant style, and was widely admired by the noblewomen of Heian-kyo. It is said that Nagahara no Yoshihira once eloped with Gaozi, but they were intercepted and returned; Gaozi was sent to the palace, while Nagahara no Yoshihira was exiled to the eastern lands. However, this may not be a sorrowful and touching love story, as it is rumored that throughout his life, Nagahara no Yoshihira had romantic entanglements with 3,333 women, being thoroughly a playboy.
The Splendor of the Saga Era
Even if Sugawara no Michizane truly transformed into a vengeful spirit and took the life of Fujiwara no Tokihira, he ultimately lacked the power to completely overthrow the entire Fujiwara Northern House. In September 903, the eight-year-old Prince Kanmyō ascended to the throne, becoming Emperor Suzaku, while the administration was dominated by his uncles, the Chancellor Fujiwara no Tadahira and the Minister of the Right Fujiwara no Nakahira. During Emperor Suzaku's reign, banditry surged across the regions, leading to the famous "Rebellion of Taira no Masakado" and "Rebellion of Fujiwara no Sumitomo".
In the third year of the Kanpei era (891), Fujiwara no Motonari passed away. Emperor Uda immediately reinstated Tachibana no Hirotsugu, as well as Sugawara no Michizane, who had defended Hirotsugu that year, appointing Michizane as the head of the Imperial Treasury to contend with Fujiwara no Motonari's son, Fujiwara no Tokihira. Six years later, Emperor Uda abdicated in favor of the 13-year-old Prince Atsuhito, and he himself became a monk at Ninna-ji, dedicating his time to writing his memoirs, "Kanpei's Testament." From that point on, emperors who abdicated and became monks were honored with the title "Hōō" (法皇), and Uda Hōō became the first Hōō in Japanese history.
Emperor Saga was a monarch with a strong literary inclination, advocating for a governance style of non-interference. He entrusted political affairs to his subordinates while dedicating himself to poetry and the appreciation of landscapes. He composed many renowned poems and was renowned for his calligraphy, being compared to Kūkai and Tachibana no Toshitsuna, collectively referred to as the "Three Great Brushes of the World." This emperor also held a profound reverence for Buddhism and admired the Tang style, significantly supporting the famous monks Saichō and Kūkai from the Tang dynasty, ultimately establishing the Tendai and Shingon sects in Japan.
The construction of the new capital was undertaken twice, and naturally, the expenditure flowed like water. Moreover, Emperor Kanmu also launched large-scale military campaigns against the Emishi three times, depleting the wealth that had been accumulated through institutional reforms. By December of the 24th year of Enryaku (805), the imperial treasury was on the verge of collapse. Fujiwara no Otsugu, Sugawara no Michizane, and others submitted memorials to advise against the construction of the palace and the campaigns against the Emishi, proposing the implementation of what was termed "moral governance." Reluctantly, Emperor Kanmu accepted their suggestions in full—this was likely a fleeting moment of clarity, for in March of the following year, he passed away.
In order to ensure national tax revenue, the court was compelled to modify the land distribution system and implement the "land enclosure system" (also known as the "negative name system"). This system does not allocate state-owned land to eligible citizens but instead leases it to wealthier farmers, with taxes equivalent to rent. Lease agreements are renewed annually, and when lessees have the means to renew, they often build walls (enclosures) to protect their cultivated land. Thus, this type of land is referred to as "enclosed land" or "negative name." The establishment of this system has resulted in the rich becoming richer and the poor becoming poorer, with a large number of landless farmers being forced into enclosures and estates, becoming serfs. Lease agreements are renewed annually, and when lessees have the means to renew, they often build walls (enclosures) to protect their cultivated land. Thus, this type of land is referred to as "enclosed land" or "negative name." The establishment of this system has resulted in the rich becoming richer and the poor becoming poorer, with a large number of landless farmers being forced into enclosures and estates, becoming serfs
The power of Sugawara no Michizane gradually took shape. After Emperor Daigo ascended the throne, he was appointed as the Minister of the Right, sharing the governance with Minister of the Left Fujiwara no Tokihira. This naturally aroused the vigilance and dissatisfaction of the Fujiwara clan. Consequently, Fujiwara no Tokihira spread rumors and slander, ultimately forcing Sugawara no Michizane to be exiled to Kyushu as the Governor of Dazaifu.
Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, through the interrogation of the retainers of Ban no Yoshio, namely Ikegawa Kōzan and Ban no Kiyoshige, claimed to have obtained conclusive evidence, which he used to eliminate his political rivals. On September 22, he sentenced the Grand Minister Ban no Yoshio, the Right Guardian Ban no Nakahiro, and three of Ban no Yoshio's retainers—Kifuchō, Ban no Kiyoshige, and Ban no Akimura—totaling five individuals, to be the principal offenders in the arson case, to be executed, with their sentences commuted by one degree, their properties confiscated, and exiled to remote regions. Additionally, ten accomplices were also subsequently sentenced to exile.
When reading Japanese names, there are two additional points to note. First, names with more than two characters, such as nicknames, official titles, and court names, are often abbreviated to two characters. For example, Chiba no Gonroku (Gonbei Rokurō), Maeda no Yosuke (Yosukeemon), Takeda no Norikata (the corresponding Tang dynasty official title of Samasuke), Baba no Minoru (Minoru no Kami), Oda no Kamitsumi (Kamitsuka no Suke), and Takasaka no Danzō (Danzō no Chū). In the last two cases, omitting one character leads to ambiguity between the primary and secondary titles, similar to how it is preferable to omit the term "Deputy" when addressing a leader who is not the primary official, ensuring a pleasant interaction. For instance, Chiba no Gonroku (Gonbei Rokurō), Maeda no Yosuke (Yosukeemon), Takeda no Norikata (the corresponding Tang dynasty official title of Samasuke), Baba no Minoru (Minoru no Kami), Oda no Kamitsumi (Kamitsuka no Suke), and Takasaka no Danzō (Danzō no Chū). In the last two cases, omitting one character leads to ambiguity between the primary and secondary titles, similar to how it is preferable to omit the term "Deputy" when addressing a leader who is not the primary official, ensuring a pleasant interaction.
It is said that Emperor Uda, upon hearing of Sugawara no Michizane's exile, hurriedly drove to the inner palace, hoping to persuade Emperor Daigo to revoke the decree. However, all the gates to the inner palace were already guarded by trusted aides of Fujiwara no Toshitune, preventing the emperor from entering. Emperor Uda left in disappointment and thereafter devoted himself to the study of Buddhism, no longer concerning himself with worldly matters—this also illustrates the immense power of the Fujiwara clan.
And Ping Jiangmen is precisely the grandson of Gao Wang, the founder of the Gao Wang lineage of the Huanwu Ping clan.
In order to prevent this situation from further escalating, the Nara court repeatedly relocated people to remote areas and cultivated wasteland. However, because the land rights of these newly cultivated areas belonged to the state, the "Three Generations, One Body Law" was promulgated in the seventh year of the Yōrō era (723), stipulating that the land newly cultivated from existing ditches and ponds would still belong to the cultivator for one generation, while land cultivated from newly constructed ditches and ponds would be allowed to be passed down for three generations. Consequently, the enthusiasm of the cultivators was not high, leading to the phenomenon of "farmers becoming weary and land reverting to wasteland." In the fifteenth year of the Tenpyō era (743), the court was compelled to amend the old system and issued the "Permanent Private Property Law for Cultivated Fields," effectively breaking the state ownership of land and allowing partial ownership of land to belong to individuals.
In the third year of the Jiaxiang era (850 AD), Emperor Ninmyō passed away, and Prince Daikō ascended to the throne, becoming Emperor Buntoku. He appointed Prince Yoshitomo as the Crown Prince. This Prince Yoshitomo had three-quarters of the Fujiwara bloodline, as his mother, Akiko, was the daughter of Fujiwara no Yoshifusa. The close ties with the imperial family led to Yoshifusa being appointed as a Junior First Rank Chancellor in 857, taking charge of the state affairs.
Certainly, not just any warrior clan is qualified to guard the imperial palace. The leaders of these warrior clans are often both the local officials of state-owned lands that are considered the court's domain and the newly wealthy officials with formal titles. Among these newly wealthy individuals, the most powerful are those with imperial bloodlines, who have been granted the status of vassals and given surnames such as "Minamoto" and "Taira". The most prominent among them is the Kanmu Taira clan, based in the Kanto region, and the Seiwa Genji clan, based in the regions of Settsu and Kawachi in the Kinai area.
The most terrifying event occurred on June 26, 930, during a prolonged drought. The ministers gathered at the Seiryōden to discuss prayers for rain when suddenly a dark cloud drifted in from Mount Atago in the west, enveloping the skies over Heian-kyo. Thunder roared, and a bolt of lightning struck the palace pillar, instantly killing the Grand Minister and Minister of Civil Affairs, Fujiwara no Kiyokatsu (from the Nan family), while several others were severely injured. Emperor Daigo, frightened by this incident, fell ill and was unable to recover. In September, he hastily abdicated in favor of Crown Prince Kameaki and moved out of the palace. However, this could not save his life, and shortly thereafter, he passed away at the age of only forty-six.
After the 10th century, the concept of "myoden" (named fields) gradually merged with that of "shōen" (manors), as many landowners entrusted their lands to the manors to expand the coverage of the manors' influence. The term "entrust" refers to the act of offering, where the nominal owners of the myoden were recorded as the powerful manor lords, who collected annual tributes from them. This tribute was not necessarily lighter than the national taxes, but from that point on, the myoden acquired the right of "non-entry" and gradually transformed into a part of the manor or large manor. This led to the formation of a hierarchical manor system, with the highest manor lord referred to as "honke" (main house), followed by "rikke" (leading house), and then "kashiji" or "yoshoshi" (lower officials). By the 12th century, feudal manors occupied more than half of the land in the country, and the manor economy gradually became the mainstay of Japanese social and economic life. Even the remaining state-owned lands could be viewed as manors with the court as the honke, the provincial governors as the rikke, and the actual landowners as the officials of various manors.
The second point to note is that the Japanese use kanji in a manner that is not as rigorous as we do. Many meanings and pronunciations correspond to two or even more characters sourced from China. Therefore, many names and official titles may have the same pronunciation but often have multiple written forms—one must not assume that these refer to different individuals. For example, Uesugi Sadamitsu (also written as Sadayuki), Yamamoto Kankai (also written as Kanzu), Honda Tadao (also written as Honda), and so on. ... Unfortunately, one also has to distinguish these from individuals who have been granted surnames or have changed their names for some reason, which is truly exhausting ... For instance, Uesugi Sadamitsu (also written as Sadayuki), Yamamoto Kankai (also written as Kanzu), Honda Tadao (also written as Honda), and so on. ... Unfortunately, one also has to distinguish these from individuals who have been granted surnames or have changed their names for some reason, which is truly exhausting ...
Samurai and Samurai Clans
On the 23rd, Emperor Ninmyo and Fujiwara no Yoshifusa finally completed their excavation work, thus deposing Prince Kenzan from his position as Crown Prince. Simultaneously, they demoted or exiled more than 60 individuals, including the father of the Crown Princess, the Grand Minister Fujiwara no Aihira, the Middle Minister Fujiwara no Yoshino, and the Crown Prince's Chief Minister, Fumimuro Akitsune. Fujiwara no Aihira was Yoshifusa's uncle, and Fujiwara no Yoshino came from the Shiki family; both were influential figures aligned with Prince Kenzan. Following this incident, they were all eliminated by Yoshifusa.
In the 21st year of the Yanli period (802 AD), Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, serving as the commander, led an army of 40,000 eastward, achieving a great victory over the main forces of the Emishi. He captured the Emishi chieftain Akō (originally written as 弓下加一横) and established a settlement in the region of Danzawa along the Kitakami River, where he built a fortress and a library, setting up a garrison to govern the area. Subsequently, many descendants of Sakanoue no Tamuramaro served as officials in the Ōu region, gaining significant prominence.
Titles of Ancient Japanese People
The Incident at Ying Tianmen
However, the matter did not end there. On August 3 of that year, the residence of the powerful official Hishishige suddenly reported to the court, claiming that the father and son, Ban Shannan and Ban Zhongyong, were the true arsonists. This led to renewed accusations in the court, causing everyone to feel anxious. Consequently, Emperor Seiwa officially appointed Fujiwara no Yoshifusa as regent on the 19th, instructing him to thoroughly investigate the matter
Fujiwara no Yoshifusa died in the fourteenth year of the Jōgan era (872 AD) in September, and was posthumously honored with the title "Loyal and Benevolent." His power was inherited by his adopted son, Fujiwara no Mototsune. Fujiwara no Mototsune was also not a benevolent ruler. In 876, Emperor Seiwa abdicated the throne, passing it to the nine-year-old Crown Prince Sadami, who became Emperor Yōsei. Emperor Yōsei was born of Fujiwara no Takako, and Mototsune, as the emperor's uncle, wielded even greater power in the court and beyond. Fujiwara no Mototsune was also not a benevolent ruler. In 876, Emperor Seiwa abdicated the throne, passing it to the nine-year-old Crown Prince Sadami, who became Emperor Yōsei. Emperor Yōsei was born of Fujiwara no Takako, and Mototsune, as the emperor's uncle, wielded even greater power in the court and beyond.
Emperor Uda was once demoted to the status of a subject, undoubtedly harboring a certain sense of inferiority within. After ascending the throne, he passed by the residence of Emperor Yozei, who had been forced to abdicate, and was humiliated when Yozei remarked, "The current sovereign was originally my household servant." Under the influence of such a mindset, Emperor Uda naturally did not dare to utter a single word of dissent against Fujiwara no Mototsune, who had supported his rise to power. Although he was already of age at the time of his ascension, he still entrusted all governmental affairs to Mototsune, stating, "All matters, great and small, have been consolidated by the officials, and everything is to be reported to the Chancellor (Fujiwara no Mototsune), and then presented." This is the origin of the title 'Chancellor.' Emperor Uda certainly did not dare to utter a single word of dissent against Fujiwara no Mototsune, and although he was already of age at the time of his ascension, he still entrusted all governmental affairs to Mototsune, stating, "All matters, great and small, have been consolidated by the officials, and everything is to be reported to the Chancellor (Fujiwara no Mototsune), and then presented." This is the origin of the title 'Chancellor.'
Turning back to the manor, early manors were also subject to taxation, but these manors were controlled by large temples and noble families. They used various pretexts to obtain the "Taiseikan seal" or the "Ministry of Civil Affairs seal," thereby gaining the qualification to be exempt from taxes, referred to as "non-payment." Furthermore, they employed various excuses to prevent state officials from entering, with both judicial and police powers within the manor being held by the manor lords, termed as "non-entry." The combination of non-payment and non-entry transformed the manor lords into true feudal lords, with the manor becoming their feudal territory. Obtaining the qualification for tax exemption, known as "non-payment," and further using various excuses to prevent state officials from entering, resulted in the manor lords holding both judicial and police powers within the manor, referred to as "non-entry." This non-payment and non-entry ultimately made the manor lords genuine feudal lords, with the manor becoming their feudal domain.
Emperor Kammu was greatly enraged and ordered an investigation, which not only uncovered a group of conspirators, including dozens of prominent figures from influential clans such as the Ōtomo and the Saeki, but ultimately also pointed the finger at his own brother, Prince Sawara of the Crown Prince. Whether Prince Sawara was wronged remains unknown; in any case, he was stripped of his title as Crown Prince and confined in Daishō-ji, where he starved himself to death within a month. The following month after his death, Emperor Kammu appointed his own son, Prince Anden, as the new Crown Prince.
A similar situation also occurred in Japan, although the outcome was not as pronounced. This refers to Emperor Saga establishing the secretariat known as the "Cangren Office" to manage and assist in handling confidential documents. The head of the Cangren Office was referred to as the "Cangren Chief," and the emperor appointed his favored minister, Fujiwara no Fuhito, to this position. As a result, Fujiwara no Fuhito rose rapidly in status, ultimately attaining the high office of Left Minister, reaching the pinnacle of servitude. It can be said that although the Cangren Office did not evolve into a new administrative institution, and the Cangren Chief did not become a true prime minister in the full sense, the Fujiwara clan nonetheless expanded significantly due to the establishment of the Cangren Office.
Fujiwara Motokiyo was originally the son of Fujiwara Nagayoshi, but he was adopted by Fujiwara Yoshifusa. Naturally, he had to report this matter to Yoshifusa and seek the instructions of the Chancellor and his father. Fujiwara Yoshifusa favored the Minamoto clan and petitioned Emperor Seiwa, requesting that officials be sent to question Minamoto no Nobu. Minamoto no Nobu, of course, denied the allegations, and thus the matter was shelved.
Upon the death of his father, Emperor Heijo immediately recalled Yaku, appointing her as "Shōji," also known as "Kōdō Naishi," which is the head of the female officials in the palace. Due to this connection, Yaku's brother, Fujiwara Nakana, the eldest son of Fujiwara Tanezane, swiftly rose to prominence and entered the center of power
The relocation of the capital during the Huanwu era
However, from another perspective, Emperor Uda's actions may not have been entirely voluntary. In June of his second year of reign (888), he issued a decree requesting Fujiwara no Motonari to take on the role of "Aheng" as his official title, comparing him to the ancient Chinese sage Yi Yin (who was said to have been honored with the title "Aheng"). However, upon receiving this decree, Fujiwara no Motonari was greatly incensed, believing that "Aheng" was merely an honorific title without any real power. He expressed that since the Emperor had this intention, he might as well resign and not concern himself with anything further. This abrupt decision left Emperor Uda alarmed, prompting him to hastily repent and explain himself. Nevertheless, Motonari remained unyielding, insisting that the Emperor dismiss his trusted advisor Tachibana no Hiroshi, who had drafted the decree. The debate over whether "Aheng" held any authority continued for a full six months, during which Fujiwara no Motonari effectively ceased his duties for the same duration.
The actions of Fujiwara no Motonari are quite similar to those of the powerful minister Huo Guang of the Western Han Dynasty in China, who deposed King Liu He of Changyi. This indicates that his power, while perhaps not surpassing that of Huo Guang, is certainly not far behind. As for whether the actions of the King of Changyi in China and Emperor Yōsei in Japan were truly as disgraceful as recorded in historical materials, this remains entirely unprovable.
Heian-kyo measures approximately 4.7 kilometers from north to south and about 4.5 kilometers from east to west. Its basic structure is quite similar to that of Heijo-kyo, with the northern central area serving as the inner city. The city is divided into the left and right capitals by the Suzaku Avenue, which runs from north to south, and further segmented into dozens of wards by several straight horizontal and vertical streets. Emperor Kanmu constructed shrines such as Kamo, Matsuo, and Inari around Heian-kyo, as well as temples like To-ji and Sai-ji, but did not permit the relocation of the old temples and shrines from Heijo-kyo.
In 890, Sugawara no Michizane completed his term as governor and returned to the capital, where he subsequently gained the favor of Emperor Uda. In 894, the Council of State dispatched a new round of envoys to Tang China, appointing Sugawara no Michizane as the chief envoy—this was likely an opportunity for political rivals to attempt to exclude him from the center of power. In response, Michizane wrote the document "Request for the Council of State to Decide on the Dispatch of Envoys to Tang," clearly stating that internal turmoil (the Huang Chao Rebellion) was occurring in the Tang dynasty, the situation was complex, and the journey was perilous, thus requesting a temporary halt to the dispatch of envoys to Tang. Emperor Uda accepted his suggestion.
The Change of Chenghe
Emperor Kanmu was powerless to reverse the course of history, and he could not completely resolve the issues surrounding the estates. He could only make some minor adjustments within his capabilities to temporarily alleviate social conflicts and ensure the state's tax revenue. The reform measures he implemented mainly included: 1. Restructuring the bureaucratic system by establishing the position of "Kangeyushi" to supervise local officials; 2. Amending the land distribution law; 3. Recognizing the intermarriage between good citizens and lowly citizens, allowing their offspring to become "good citizens" in order to completely eliminate the remnants of slavery; 4. Partially converting the conscription system to a recruitment system; and so on. The reform measures he implemented mainly included: 1. Restructuring the bureaucratic system by establishing the position of "Kangeyushi" to supervise local officials; 2. Amending the land distribution law; 3. Recognizing the intermarriage between good citizens and lowly citizens, allowing their offspring to become "good citizens" in order to completely eliminate the remnants of slavery; 4. Partially converting the conscription system to a recruitment system; and so on.
The late Emperor acted in this manner, and subsequently, the emperors of later generations followed suit. In 825, Emperor Junwa demoted Prince Takadono (the grandson of Emperor Kanmu) and bestowed upon him the surname "Taira," which is referred to as the "Kanmu Taira clan." Following this, there emerged various lineages such as the "Seiwa Genji" descended from Emperor Seiwa, the "Uda Genji" descended from Emperor Uda, and the "Murakami Genji" descended from Emperor Murakami.
During the Heian period, the Japanese court gradually relaxed its military preparations, being compelled to acknowledge the legitimacy of the samurai clans. They even entrusted these clans with the exercise of the state's military, judicial, and police powers. Local governors frequently appointed the leaders of the samurai clans as "Oshiroshi" or "Chuitoshi." Eventually, even the imperial palace was guarded by the samurai clans
The actual manager of the manor, known as the manor official, in order to protect the estate and simultaneously exercise judicial and police powers within the manor, must possess an independent armed force. Thus, after the mid-9th century, the samurai class gradually took shape. Generally, the samurai formed groups centered around the clan of the manor official, known as samurai bands.
At that time, in addition to the important minister Fujiwara no Yoshifusa, there were also his brother, the Right Minister Fujiwara no Yoshisuke, and besides the Fujiwara Northern House, there were the prominent families of the Otomo and the Ki clans (after 823, the Otomo clan changed their name to the Ban clan to avoid using the name of Prince Otomo). Additionally, there were the Genji brothers, who had descended from royal status to that of ministers. Initially, the Grand Minister Ban no Yoshio reported that the arsonists were the Left Minister Minamoto no Nobu and the Middle Minister Minamoto no Taka, and he conferred with Fujiwara no Yoshisuke to send the Left Middle General Fujiwara no Motonori to arrest Minamoto no Nobu.
However, Emperor Saga was not truly a person of simple desires. Like his father, Emperor Kanmu, he married a large number of wives and fathered many sons (it is said he had 28 consorts and over 50 children). The excessive number of princes led to a financial strain on the national treasury. In May of the 5th year of the Kōnin era (814), the emperor had no choice but to demote 32 princes, whose mothers had lower status, to the rank of subjects, bestowing upon them the surname "Minamoto"—these individuals and their descendants came to be known as the Saga Minamoto clan.
Sugawara no Michizane was a renowned calligrapher, poet, and scholar in ancient Japan. He accompanied the Japanese envoy to Tang China, possessing considerable expertise in Sinology. In 886, he was appointed as the governor of Sanuki, where he witnessed the hardships faced by the impoverished populace in the remote region of Nankai, and composed many poems that have been passed down through generations. During his tenure as governor of Sanuki, he wrote the "Letter to Minister Shōsen," persuading Fujiwara no Mototsune to set aside his obsessions and grievances and focus on state affairs. It is said that after reading this letter, Fujiwara no Mototsune experienced a moment of enlightenment, ceased his strike, and no longer insisted that Emperor Uda severely punish Tachibana no Hiroyuki, thus temporarily calming the court turmoil that had lasted for six months.
Emperor Saga pursued an elegant lifestyle, which cannot be described as decayed, yet was indeed extravagant. His way of life influenced an entire era, leading the early Heian period to reach a splendid peak. However, the old man was bound to pass away one day, and once his authority was lost, various court conflicts that had been suppressed by this authority immediately resurfaced. Thus, just two days after his death, the "Jōwa Incident" erupted. However, the old man was bound to pass away one day, and once his authority was lost, various court conflicts that had been suppressed by this authority immediately resurfaced. Thus, just two days after his death, the "Jōwa Incident" erupted
The ultimate victor was Emperor Saga, who first eliminated the former emperor's confidant, Fujiwara no Nakanari, and then dispatched troops to intercept the former emperor's forces. The sovereign was already debauched, so how could the soldiers be earnest? The Nara army scattered in disarray, with some committing suicide, and the former emperor of Heijō had no choice but to become a monk, indicating a complete relinquishment of power. Consequently, Emperor Saga deposed the crown prince, Prince Takatake, the son of the former emperor of Heijō, and established his half-brother, Prince Ōtomo, as the new crown prince, thereby gaining full control over the court.
The small warrior groups often combine according to the structure of a family to form larger warrior groups, which are referred to as "honke". The head of the family is called "sōryō", while the smaller warrior groups within are known as "bunka", and the heads of these groups are often referred to as "shoshi". From the term "shoshi" (which in Japan refers to all sons other than the legitimate eldest son), it is evident that Japanese warriors differ from their Western European knight counterparts. Knights are loyal to a particular lord based on contracts, and their relationships are relatively distant and loosely connected, with the principle that "my vassal's vassal is not my vassal". In contrast, Japanese warriors build their groups based on the traditional family structure. Additionally, Japanese tradition does not place great emphasis on blood relations; thus, non-blood-related lord-vassal relationships often form through marriage, godparenting, or fostering, resembling father-son relationships, which are quite close and consequently enhance their combat effectiveness.
Due to this matter, Sugawara no Michizane transformed from a vengeful spirit into the God of Thunder in popular legend. By the 11th and 12th centuries, his image underwent another transformation, changing from the fierce, wrathful God of Thunder to the benevolent God of Learning, serving as a protector for students across various fields. He is enshrined at Kitano Tenmangu, where he is referred to as "Tenman Daijizaiten"
Sugawara no Michizane, filled with deep resentment, passed away in exile in Kyushu two years later (903). The people, on one hand, cherished his integrity and uprightness, while on the other hand, resented the political dominance of the Fujiwara clan. Thus, it was said that Sugawara no Michizane transformed into a vengeful spirit, unleashing various calamities to punish his political adversaries. Strangely enough, in the following decades, disasters indeed continued unabated. In 909, the robust Fujiwara no Tokihira died unexpectedly; in 923, Prince Motohira, the son of Tokihira's sister, also passed away prematurely; and in 925, just after being named the Crown Prince, Tokihira's grandson, Prince Yoshiyori, suddenly died at the tender age of five. Furthermore, numerous calamities befell the court nobles (especially the Fujiwara family and their affiliates), with epidemics spreading and countless ominous events occurring.
Why is that? Because although the land distribution law was enacted, this decree did not fully align with the social production conditions of the time, and various loopholes still existed. The most significant issue was that major temples and shrines retained their temple lands, and many nobles still held onto their fiefs (such as witi, shikiden, and koden), which were exempt from taxation. The uneven distribution of population and heavy taxation led to many commoners being unable to receive land or cultivate the land they were assigned, forcing them to enter temple lands or noble fiefs, thus becoming serfs in the emerging manors. Moreover, many nobles continued to retain their fiefs (such as witi, shikiden, and koden), which were also exempt from taxation. The uneven distribution of population and heavy taxation resulted in many commoners being unable to receive land or cultivate the land they were assigned, compelling them to enter temple lands or noble fiefs, thereby becoming serfs in the emerging manors
For example, Takeda Harunobu became a daimyo at a young age and held an official position, so few people knew his childhood name, and he was generally referred to as "Takeda Daizen Daibu Harunobu." After he entered the priesthood (practicing at home), he was given the Dharma name Shinjin, thus adding four characters to become "Takeda Daizen Daibu Harunobu Nyudo Shinjin" (the abbreviated form Takeda Shingen is less respectful). After his death, he was often referred to by his posthumous title, "Takeda Tokuei-ken." A similar case is Nagao Kageyoshi, who was ultimately called "Uesugi Konoe Shōshō Terutora Nyudo Kenshin," abbreviated as Uesugi Kenshin; and Ise Shinkurō Moritoki, who was ultimately called "Hōjō Sagami no Kami Moritoki Nyudo Sōzui," with the posthumous title Zōun-an, abbreviated as Hōjō Zōun. Furthermore, Shingen's strategist was called "Yamamoto Kansuke Haruyuki Nyudo Dōki," and the lord of Mino, known as the viper, was called "Saitō Yamashiro no Kami Hidetaka Nyudo Dōsan," among others.